By Elayne Coakes and Gill Sugden

This research looks at knowledge and the understanding of what knowledge means. It considers the ideas of a Learning Organisation and what this means for knowledge management in this educational sector and proposes a new view of the role of managers in the learning organisation. But above all it considers the idea, as Ackoff states above, that knowledge on its own is of less value than when it is combined with understanding.

There are many definitions in the literature as to what knowledge consists of and how it can be distinguished from data or information. Ackoff himself says that data are symbols that represent the properties of objects and events. Information is processed data and is contained in descriptions of 'who', 'what' 'where' etc. Knowledge is conveyed by instructions and understanding by explanations.

Knowledge can be described as being either Tacit or Explicit.

Tacit knowledge is:

Explicit knowledge:

There are several different types of knowledge that we can distinguish. In particular theorists have discussed declarative knowledge ( which is knowledge about something - a shared understanding of concepts, categories); procedural knowledge (which is knowledge of how something happens); and causal knowledge (which is knowledge of why something happens and can thus enable strategy formulation).

Additionally knowledge can be considered general. That is a broad type of knowledge that is publicly available and independent of events. Alternatively it can be considered specific, which is context related and which needs focal knowledge in order to be described and meaningful. These categories are different but complementary to the seven ways of knowing discussed by Lazear 1991.

To return to Ackoff's quotation discussed at the beginning of this paper, knowledge without understanding is only a part of the equation. Introna [1997] also discusses this aspect when looking at the idea of the hermeneutic circle. He argues that information must change the recipient, it must lead to a level of interpretation and understanding. The hermeneutic circle is the dialectic process of understanding.

Our preliminary thoughts on theory development would indicate that knowledge management and the use of appropriate information and communication systems may have a transformational impact on the role of the manager. This is illustrated by the figure below.

Management of explicit knowledge, facilitated by technology, drops decision-making level down the organisational hierarchy and means there is no need for managers to make decisions, the knowledge required to make decisions is available at all levels of the organisation.

BUT the manager retains experience and implicit knowledge and therefore utilises these for facilitating and advising the new decision makers.

Learning organisations, according to Senge 1992, are those organisations in which people can continually expand their ability to create positive organisational outcomes, where innovation is nurtured, and where learning is a continuous, collaborative, supportive and supported process.

The preliminary analysis of our pilot study and organisational research would indicate that the universities we surveyed had none or very minimal methods of organising their knowledge. In addition, the sharing of knowledge and expertise internally amongst staff was seen as problematical due to cultural issues and without exception these organisations were seen to lack understanding about knowledge management by senior staff. Only one university in our sample, employed a specified person as a Knowledge Officer. This university also had a knowledge forum and organisational database of members’ expertise. Whilst several universities held these expertise databases, only one also had a ‘best practice’ database.

There is some current debate in relation to using Intranets for disseminating knowledge throughout organisations, and our respondents seemed to make this connection also. However, it is evident from the definitions of knowledge discussed elsewhere in this paper, that Intranets disseminate information through such mediums as newsletters. This use is merely collecting together explicit knowledge, but until you can show that understanding and learning takes place through such a medium, Intranets cannot be classified as knowledge management tools.

Interestingly, 57% of the universities saw their organisation as learning organisations but the respondents were not always able to define for us what they meant by this term.

Early analysis of our survey and interviews to date indicate that problems of culture change, and change management, remain, as in previous management theory and study, the major restrictors of successful organisational development. There needs to be a far greater understanding of organisational direction throughout an organisation in order for effective and efficient use to be made of CISs, and in order for more than the IT department to be making use of the tools.

It is our contention that since universities are organisations that are dedicated to the imparting of knowledge and the teaching of the art of learning, they should, in themselves, be learning organisations that manage their knowledge to the benefit of the organisation. [Coakes & Sugden 1999]. The part of our research devoted to knowledge management has sought answers to the following questions:

We also seek to draw out from the respondents their own concept of a learning organisation, and if they believe that they work in one, why this is the case.

In the immediate future we will be carrying out interviews with a number of our respondents in order to explore their responses in greater depth. Our original pilot survey will be revised/reviewed and sent out to commercial organisations. We are interested in particular to compare concepts between the university and business sector, as well as issues of cultural change which have emerged strongly from this pilot study.

Ackoff R, Ackoff's Fables, Wiley 1991 in 'Ackoff's Best' Wiley 1999 pp170

Coakes E and Sugden G ‘The Learning Organisation and Knowledge Management in the University Sector’ BIT99 Manchester Metropolitan University Nov 1999

Introna L, Management, Information and Power Basingstoke:Macmillan 1997

Lazear D, Seven Ways of Knowing: Teaching for Multiple Intelligences Palatine Ill:Skylight 1991

EC/GS